Italo Calvino’s “Nonexistent Knight” Essay

The central characters introduced in Italo Calvinos novella, The Nonexistent Knight, are curiously diverse, yet each readily identifiable as each are driven or defined by particular quirks. In Agilulf Emo Bertrandin of the Guildivern and of the Others of Corbentraz and Sura, Knight of Selimpia Citeriore and Fez we see order and willpower, in Raimbaut of Roussillon theres passion, in the periwinkle female knight Bradamante is desire and pride, in Torrismund a need to belong, and in Gurdiloo nothing, naught but empty thoughts being filled and then emptied on whim. I find, however, that our narrator (and proclaimed writer of this knightly tale), Sister Theodora, personifies a certain idea of her own, she is wishful thinking and the story she weaves (and claims to have been a part of) is wish fulfilment; I posit that this story of hers is all the end result of a restless imagination at work and she is not Bradamante, Bradamante is Sister Theodoras insert of herself into her story world. Our first order of business is clarifying just what I have in mind when mentioning a self-insert, or anything of the like. There is a trend among the more enthusiastic fans of various media (especially television, books, comics, and video games) to expand the world of whichever specific title about which they are so passionate, usually fleshing out such worlds through acts of writing their own spins on what happened before, during or after the existing story; this is generally dubbed fanfiction and this is where the term self-insert has been coined, though such a device is not exclusive to derivative works, nor is it as recent a phenomenon. Put simply, a self-insert is a character placed within the context of a story that is meant to represent the writer as he or she is or to represent the writer as he or she would like to see himself/herself, something akin to an author surrogate. As Ive written, this technique is hardly a new one, writers as far back as Dante Alighieri have been placing themselves into their stories, but the name for it in terms of wish fulfilment storytelling is rather new. That aside, from the start of the novella, there has been what I had initially thought to be intentional comedic discrepancies by a neutral third person perspective in the manner Charlemagnes military operated. Chapter one introduces the paladins of Charlemagne as the emperor himself reviews the  company in a lax fashion, chapter two sees the invisible knight, Agilulf, directs young Raimbaut to the Superintendency of Duels, Feuds, and Besmirched Honor (a comically bureaucratic system for conducting vengeance) when the boy asks how he should go about avenging his fallen father (14). Further on, when Torrismund announces that the young woman Agilulf had rescued from rape was not a virgin, a peculiar chivalric practice is addressed: to rescue a noble-birthed virgins chastity was immediate access to knighthood, but to rescue a noblewoman whose maidenhood was no longer in tact would only earn an inflated pay (78). Historically, the process of becoming a knight was a long one beginning quite early in youth and required a young man to undergo many stages in his training; he would begin as early as 6 years of age as a page (a waiter or personal servant of a noble) and learn basics in courtesy, polished manners, hunting, weapons, and much more. By fourteen at the earliest, the boy would then become a squire and would be taken under the guidance of (while serving) a knight, and once the squire had honed his skills and learned his lessons well, he would then be dubbed a knight (medieval-life.net). Once the erroneous explanation of knighting is given, however, we already know something integral to the story: in chapter four, the perspective shifts from third person to first as a narrator of sorts reveals herself as Sister Theodora, the writer of this tale, and from there the discrepancies begin to make sense; the tale is written by a cloistered nun, how is she to understand military procedure?Beyond just the absurdities behind some of the happenings in Charlemagnes assembly of paladins, the title character, Agilulf, is an oddity all his own. He is a knight who does not exist in any physical form but is a thought, or rather, he is thought itself and this disembodied voice and willpower occupy a pristine white suit of armor while in service for the emperor. While we cannot truly prove that a thought cannot be a living form of its own walking about the earth unseen, to portray such an idea as possible is quite a fantastical move and as such lends to the fairytale quality of this narrative. So we have in the character of Agilulf, a heavy element of fantasy, from his lack of physical existence to his perfection in all he does. Now we come to a definite head-turner in the tale, the proud and beautiful princess-turned-knight, Bradamante. Bradamantes case isnt one like that of Jeanne dArc where she is a woman secretly and merely playing the role of a man, Bradamante is very openly female and is pined after by the paladins of the order. Her sexual exploits are not secret, nor is her nearly impossible true desire in a man and shes a master in combat and weaponry; all around, Bradamante stands out blatantly as a woman during a medieval time. While orders of female knights were not entirely unheard of, such occurrences were rare. The Order of the Hatchet is the only female order about which a great deal of information is known, and of the few instances when women were permitted knighthood, this order was the only one whose women saw the combat privileges that male knights received. The Order of the Hatchet was formed in Catalonia by the count of Barcelona in recognition of the women who fought in defense of their town while under attack from the Moors. These women received other knightly privileges besides combat, they received tax exemption and also had precedence over men in public gatherings (hereldica.org), though nothing else was heard of this order beyond the original members, so presumably the order died with the original members. Regardless of this miniscule instance of female knights, this order was formed in the 1100s, while Bradamante would have been in the military sometime in between 768 and 814 AD, as this was the time of Charlemagnes rule over the Franks making her existence as a knight in real-world possibilities sketchy at best. It is through the character of Bradamante, however, that my assertion comes together; Sister Theodoras tale is just that, a mere tale and not factual recordings as she had seen it. By the time we have reached the novellas end at chapter twelve, a complicated journey has reached its end as each character (sans Bradamante and Raimbaut) finds their own resolution. Bradamante has captured the attention and heart of young Raimbaut, but does not return the sentiments, rather she travels the land over in a rather desperate attempt to locate the only man who has ever won her difficult-to-please heart, Agilulf. Bradamante disappears for year upon learning of Agilulfs collapse and finding Raimbaut in the vanished knights white armor, and Raimbaut pursues her but what has become of the female  knight? Sister Theodora employs a twist in her tale when she reveals herself to be none other than the proud Bradamante, hiding in the abbey for years in mourning for Agilulf and now desiring the love o f Raimbaut, who she frantically writes is waiting for her outside the convent. It is here that I feel Bradamantes role as Sister Theodoras self-insert comes into full play. Theodora says early in the novella that writing is her penance, now at the end she says this tale that has been her task to write was one she experienced for herself and that she still has had many other adventures for which punishment she was tasked to record. Im certain, however, that the writing punishment for Sister Theodora is along the lines of the philosophy that idle hands are the devils work. No doubt, she has a colourful imagination and is more than likely prone to daydream, and this coupled with the lack of proper military procedure and Theodoras claim as being the talented, fierce, beautiful, and loved princess-come-knight, Bradamante, leaves no doubt in my mind that the story of the Nonexistent Knight told from her narrative was pure fabrication on the good Sisters behalf. Works Cited Calvino, Italo. The Nonexistent Knight. Harcourt Brace. 1962†³Medieval Life.† 2000. 13 Nov. 2007.. Veld, Franà §oise. Women Knights. 21 Oct. 2005. 13 Nov. 2007.

Julius Caesar Concession

Julius Caesar Concession Essay Marcus Brutus was a noble man. He was loyal to himself and never did anything wrong without believing that what he was doing was right. Even though killing Julius Caesar was wicked and evil, when he did it, he had all the right intentions. Up to his very last breath, he thought that he was saving the people of Rome from an unjust ruler. He never wanted anything bad to come from it. He thought that he could bring peace to Rome Marcus Brutus, however, was very easily deceived. As long as someone told him that doing something would bring good, he would do it.This allowed Cassius to quite easily trick Marcus Brutus into doing what he wanted him to do. And being as sneaky as Cassius was he was able to pretty easily blame it on Marcus Brutus. The fact that he could be so easily tricked made him a prime target for Cassius to do the dirty work and share the blame. It can be argues that since he was so easily manipulated that you can’t really tell how goo d of a person he was. But since his intentions were so noble, that he was a truly honest, noble man. Unlike the other conspirators who chose to take place in the assassination of Caesar, Marcus Brutus did it to help his people.All of the others only took place in the assassination due to jealousy and dissatisfaction. And for Marcus Brutus, it was a big sacrifice to him as well, seeing that he and Caesar were good friends. And that that proves just how noble his intentions were. That he would kill his own friend if it meant that others could be safe. Even his enemies (Mark Antony and Octavius Caesar) respected him for the honest man that they knew that he was. He did evil things, that that did not make him an evil man. It’s like the old saying: â€Å"It’s the thought that counts† Works Cited Shakespeare, William Julius Caesar.

10 Tips To Make Your First Tattoo Successful

10 Tips To Make Your First Tattoo Successful It may be clichà ©, but a tattoo is for life. You have no timetable. Before acting out, be sure that you are ready. Remember that you are continually evolving as a person. When you are about to get inked for life, consider that your tastes may not be the same in the future. For example, your tattoo of Britpop Blur group may not have the same effect in 10 years. Do not look for a discount. A tattoo is an investment. He will be there for several years, ideally. If you start looking for a discount, you may end up with a worse result than expected. Do your homework. Before going to see a tattoo artist, decide which style you like. Then search for artists who practice this technique. Then, do not hesitate to see them discuss what you want. They can advise you and help you make an informed choice. Choose the right moment. The temperature can significantly affect the healing process of your tattoo. Try to avoid the hot weather of the summer and the dry cold of the winter. Autumn and spring are the ideal moments. Listen to your tattoo artist. If the tattoo artist tells you that your drawing will not be beautiful once on your skin or that the location you have chosen is not ideal, trust him. He knows what he is doing. Prepare to get hurt.Yes, it hurts. Not a lot of pain, but still enough. Especially if the room you have taken is large enough. If you want, bring in headphones. Listening to music at the same time can help change the nonsense. Stay hydrated and feed. Getting a tattoo can be very physically demanding. Thats why its important to come to your appointment with a full stomach and a good thirst. We suggest you bring a bottle of water and a snack. Take care of your new tattoo Listen carefully to the instructions of your tattoo artist. During the first days, you have an open wound on your body. It is essential to clean it often with unscented soap. Once your tattoo has dried, create it as if your life depended on it. Avoid Polysporin or other disinfectants. Instead, favor moisturizing creams like Aveeno. You do not have to justify yourself to anyone. Once the tattoo is on your skin, it belongs to you. If you do not feel like talking about it, do not talk about it. It does not concern anyone except you.

CORDS and the Phoenix Program in Vietnam Term Paper

CORDS and the Phoenix Program in Vietnam - Term Paper Example The term paper "CORDS and the Phoenix Program in Vietnam" talks about the success operations of the CORDS and the Phoenix programs during the Vietnam War. The Phoenix program came into existence in the period between 1967 and 1971, which was part of the CIAs effort to find intelligence access to policy levels of the Vietnam Cong Infrastructure as a way of directing development actions to the rural South Vietnam and taking control of the communist political structure by eliminating high-ranked VC cadre. At this time, phoenix program received assassination allegations. In 1993, there developed alerting evidence of VCI organization emerging after the downfall of the Diem regime. The program was then obliged to join MACV and USOM’s public safety division in advocating for the reorganization of GVN (Government of South Vietnam) intelligence. MACV had to carry out its operations through Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support (CORDS) supported by the CIAs phoenix program. The main purpose at this time was to coordinate efforts of police, local leaders and paramilitary groups to identify and tear down insurgent operations by arresting the local enemy ranking cadre and even using force if needed. The phoenix program was viewed as controversial as it received allegations of assassinations, and it was also imaged as an unlawful program targeting civilians. On the positive side, phoenix program was one of the many programs of the CIA tailored towards pacification and rural security programs run in South Vietnam. with a promise to the c ivilians that the collaboration between the government of the United States and South Vietnam was aimed at shielding them from VCI and they were even trained in self-defense by US Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV). After some time in 1967, the MACV had succeeded in uniting all military and civilian pacification attempts which were known as Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support. From this point, the CIA and MACV were intensively engaged in CORDS which was also run in unison with the Saigon administrative government. CORDS and phoenix programs hence worked as an entity by establishing an extensive network over 100 provincial and district operations committee programs in Southern Vietnam (Andrade?, 27). Basically, these committees were established to implement the CORDS and Phoenix programs. Cords programs were to come up with innovative all encompassing government approach to achieving rural pacification through development activities purposefully organized a nd directed with military operations and aid programs. In general, the program succeeded in incorporating civilian and military efforts under one command structure. The CORDS program

Supramolecular Polymers based on Hydrogen Bonding Essay

Supramolecular Polymers based on Hydrogen Bonding - Essay Example The paper tells that a supramolecular polymer refers to any kind of self-assembly that results in the creation of polymer-like aggregates occurring through reversible interactions between one or more kinds of components. Because of the reversible interactions, these polymers can thermally equilibrate with their monomers, unlike conventional polymers. These polymers are responsive to external stimuli. The mechanical properties of these polymers respond strongly to changes in solvent or temperature because of their reversible interactions, and so, they are in continuous equilibrium with their environment. Therefore, the functional properties of these polymers are highly useful. Supramolecular polymers show polymer like rheological properties because of their macromolecular structure and can also form gels if the self-assembled chains are long enough. Supramolecular polymers comprise of non-covalently bonded monomers and are of various types that include crystals, colloids, gels, liquid crystals, and hydrogen bonded polymers. Hydrogen bonded supramolecular polymers are those polymers in which the monomers are held together only by hydrogen bonds. The utility of hydrogen bonds in bringing polymers together was first shown by Stadler and coworkers. Supramolecular polymers can generally be classified into main-chain and side-chain polymers. The main-chain polymers are further divided into linear main-chain polymers, networks and linear polymers based on their bidirectional units. Side-chain polymers are further divided into two classes. The first one includes polymers with binding motifs in the side-chain, and the second one includes polymers with binding motifs in the main chain (Ligthart 2006). Supramolecular polymers of the linear main-chain type can be formed via the assembly of bifunctional or multifunctional monomers or planar structures that can assemble on both sides of a plane (Ligthart 2006). Figure 1 — Two classes of supramolecular polymers (a) Main -chain polymers, (b) Side-chain polymers (Source: Ligthart 2006, p. 3) According to Greef et al. (2009), supramolecular polymers can be classified based on the type of interactions that lead to their formation. Accordingly, the different types of supramolecular polymers that can be classified based on the interactions include those that are formed by hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, ?-? interactions, and metal-ligand binding. However, Greef et al argue that this scheme of classification, although useful, ignores mechanistic details that have been revealed as research in the field progresses. They thus propose another system of classification, which includes two groups. The first group of polymers are those that have monomers of single type, which undergo complementary end-group or self-complementary interactions. With the help of complementary couples that are directional (A-B), and self-complementary binding motifs (A-A), all kinds of polymeric structures such as cross-lin ked networks, linear homo-polymers and copolymers, and branched structures can be synthesized (Ligthart 2006). For instance, polymerization of an A2 monomer which results from the reversible A: A self-complementary interaction, comes under the first group. The polymerization of A-B monomer through a reversible A: B complementary end-group interaction is another example of the first group of supramolecular

Practical Synthesis of Useful Substances Using Organocatalysts Research Paper

Practical Synthesis of Useful Substances Using Organocatalysts - Research Paper Example This makes it a more efficient process, which uses fewer chemicals in the synthesis process, making it by a far greener and less toxic process. II. Background A. The concept of organocatalysis Acceleration of chemical processes through addition of substoichiometric quantity of organic compound refers to organocatalysis. In the last few years, interest in this field has increased because of selectivity and efficiency of many organocatalytic reactions, which have met standards of the required organic reactions. Observably, organocatalytic reactions are becoming popular in constructions of complex molecules. This recent development is because the process is less toxic compared to metallic catalysts. Predominant molecules used in the organocatalytic reaction are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorous (McMurry, 2009). Organocatalysts usually display secondary characteristics, which would lead to enamine catalysis or iminium catalysis. The mechanism involved is covalent organo catalysis. High catalysts loading apply in covalent binding of substrates while non-covalent bonding requires low substrate loading. Knoevenagel Condensation applies regular achiral organocatalysts, which uses nitrogen as its basis. The current focus of organocatalysis is asymmetric organocatalysis, which involves the use of chiral catalysts. Scientific reactions indicate asymmetric catalysis occurs when organocatalyst is chiral as observed in aldol reactions (McMurry, 2009). Organocatalysts have the following advantages they are less sensitive to moisture or oxygen, readily available, less toxic, and inexpensive (Berkessel, 2006). These advantages make organocatalysts preferable in pharmaceutical processes. During the chemical reactions toxin produced usually influence usage of certain chemical process. Notably, organocatalysis has less impact to the environment. The condition for the reaction is relatively mild thus making organocatalysts preferable over metal catalysts. The follo wing example illustrating Knoevenagel Condensation indicates that Piperdine forms iminium ion, which is reactive with carbonyl compound. Fig 1: Retrieved from http://www.organic-chemistry.org/topics/organocatalysis.shtm B. Definition of terms Catalyst is a chemical substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction but does not change its chemical composition at the end of the chemical process. Organocatalyst are catalysts, which contain organic compounds. Enamine catalysts refers to a compound that forms when ketone or aldehyde react with secondary amine resulting into a loss of Water. Imine is a compound that contains carbon hydrogen double bond. Covalent bonding refers to a chemical bonding process where atoms share electrons. Covalent bonding occurs between non-metallic atoms. Chiral is a term used to describe a molecule that does not fit on its mirror image (Reetz & Joroch, 2008). Achiral refers to molecules that are identical or fit into their mirror image. Asymmetric or ganocatalysis refers to organic synthesis, which leads to introduction of desired element of chirality (Berkessel, 2006). This technology applies in pharmaceuticals since different enantiomers of molecule contain different biological components. Aldol reaction refers to a method that leads to formation of carbon-carbon bonds. Knoevenagel Condensation this refers to carbon acid compound condensation using aldehydes to produce unsaturated ? and ? compounds (Berkessel, 2006).

The Occurrence of the Southwest Airlines Scandal Research Paper

The Occurrence of the Southwest Airlines Scandal - Research Paper Example Southwest Airlines Co is an US-based public company headquartered at Dallas, Texas. It was founded in the year 1967 (Yahoo Finance, 2012). Originally it was known as Air Southwest. Later it was renamed as Southwest Airlines and commenced its business operations in the year 1971. The shares of the company are traded in the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) with the ticker symbol â€Å"LUV†. Southwest Airlines is engaged in the business of providing scheduled transportation for its customers through the air in the United States. It started its business operations with three of the Boeing 737 aircraft which served the three cities in Texas namely, Dallas, San Antonio and Houston. It managed to expand its business on a large scale mainly due to its acquisition of AirTran Holdings in the year 2011 and as at December 31, 2011, the company operated a total of 698 aircraft that includes 88 Boeing 7171s and 610 Boeing 737s (Southwest Airlines Co., 2012a). AirTran Airways is now operated a s one of the wholly-owned subsidiaries of Southwest Airlines. The company is regarded to be one of the lowest fare domestic airlines in the United States and is committed to providing best Customer Services in the airline's industry (Southwest Airlines Co., 2012b). Recently in the year 2008, Southwest Airlines and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) were accused of presenting false safety reports. The safety reports prepared by Southwest Airlines were meant to comply with the safety regulations related to inspection of its jet aircraft. This falsification of safety reports by Southwest Airlines was confirmed by the United States House Committee.

Look at the attachments not thought of a topic yet Research Proposal

Look at the attachments not thought of a topic yet - Research Proposal Example The analysis shall enable establishment of the connection, thus a foundation for the eradication of the variables researched on. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), fact sheet number 364, approximately 16 million girls aged between 15 and 19 give birth every year. In addition, one million girls aged fewer than 15 also gives birth every year (Hamilton et al., 2012). Most of these teenagers come from low and middle-income nations. The World Health Organization also stated complication during pregnancy and childbirth as the second cause of death among teenagers, globally. The research also indicated that almost three million girls aged 15 to 19 undergone unsafe abortions, yearly, and that babies born to these teenage parents face a higher risk of infant deaths (Gibb et al., 2014). Teenage years are marked by rebellion and disagreement between teenagers and their parents. During this period, they are less likely to trust their parent. Becoming pregnant at this age will probably serve to strain the already complicated relationship. Parents will mostly view the pregnancies as the epitome of the childrens rebellion. The prospect of a fallout with the parents may end causing the teenager to conceal their pregnancies or running away from home (Coleman, 2006). Teenage girls are likely to hide their pregnancies for the longest time possible because they are afraid tell their parent. In a majority of cases, teenage girls point at their mothers potential reactions in explaining their deception. Although the stigma associated with these pregnancies is declining in modern days, most teenage girls are still afraid of the disapproval that their mothers are likely to have. It is worth noting that, some fathers will tend be bitter and unforgiving. This is true especially when the teenager is still in school (Ferre et. al., 2013). The stigma and the strain the relationships can be attributed to the fear of

Control by Heat and UV Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Control by Heat and UV - Lab Report Example Some bacteria though have developed adaptive measures to sustain high-temperature exposures, for example, T. aquaticus that is used in PCR. Psychrophiles are those that require low temperatures of less than 20⠁ °C while mesophiles require 20-40⠁ °C. Thermophiles, on the other hand, require high temperatures of above 40⠁ °C to survive. Most bacteria that infect human are mesophiles and grow optimally at 35-37⠁ °C. Bacteria that have endospores are more likely to survive extreme environmental conditions such as high temperature and high UV irradiation (Prescott, John and Donald, 54) Three TSA plates were acquired and labeled with a name, lab time, and temperature. Each was divided into three sections. Each section was marked with the abbreviation of the test organisms. A single streak (about 1cm) of each organism was made on its respective section. They were incubated at temperatures of 35⠁ °C incubator, Room temperature (or 25⠁ °C incubator) and Refrigerator (~10⠁ °C). Four TSA plates were acquired for each bacterium. Each was labeled with the name, lab time and the organism name. The plates were then divided into half each and labeled control and UV on each side. A sterile swab was inoculated into the culture. Three zigzag lines were made on the agar surface at 45 degrees to each other. The plates were exposed to UltraViolet light for 3 minutes before incubation at 35⠁ °C for 48 hours. Four Trypticase Soy Broth tubes were labeled with name, lab time, organism and time. Each tube was inoculated with the appropriate organism. Each student in the team exposed the organism to different temperature of 40⠁ °C, 55⠁ °C, 80⠁ °C and ~100⠁ °C. Each organism was exposed to heat for a given length of time, that is, 10, 20, 30 and 40 minutes. The tubes were vortexed after every 10 minutes. After the appropriate length of time, the tubes were dried and incubated at 35 °C for 48 hours. The four types of bacteria exhibited different responses to

The Future of Books Essay Example for Free

The Future of Books Essay 1. Introduction Books have evolved greatly since the first writings in clay tablets a thousand years B. C. to nowadays with the digital versions of most books that were, not long ago, only available in paper. Even though stories have been carried and passed from generation to generation since the emergence of language, only until around the fifth century has it been heard about books and their use. In the antiquity, primitive materials in which to carve such as stone and wood were replaced by finer and more portable materials like scrolls, papyrus and manuscripts, which allowed the writing of longer texts with less effort, and which lead the reading experience reaching an elite minority until the invention of the print. The history of books in modern times is directly related to the creation of the print, in the mid 15th century, by Gutenberg. This invention allowed texts to be translated and diffused, reaching much wider audiences and narrowing the knowledge gap between different social classes. The first book that Gutenberg printed was the bible, which completely revolutionized the way in which religion was regarded by the then illiterate masses, and which’s impact was then followed by a series of not only religious, but also more general cultural transformations when all types of books were reproduced and made accessible for the people. Printing made it possible for stories and knowledge to be materialized and kept throughout the years. With the advancements of the printing industry, books became easier to publish, cheaper and more attainable to people. The first printing machine had been made of wood and required a lot of hand labor and time to print, so the available copies of a book were still relatively limited. However, as the years passed, innovators sought better alternatives to wood and created metal and later on iron printing machines, which later on became mechanized, speeding up the printing process and not depending on an extensive hand labor to function. In 1867 the typewriter was invented, facilitating the typing process. With this invention, the price of books became more affordable and an increased number of readers appeared. The paper book trend lasted for centuries, gaining more audience and strength with each print innovation that was made. From Gutenberg up to the late 20th century, print books had an enormous success and growing popularity. However, with the raise of computer technologies, in 1971 the first digital library was finally created. 2. From Papers to Screens Project Gutenberg was founded in 1971 by Michael Hart, who created the first electronic book ever, with the principle of making literature accessible to everyone and to decrease the levels of illiteracy in the world. The project gathered the most important books in history in various languages, converted them into an electronic form and made them available to the public for free. This was a turning point in the history of books, since books were no longer read only by those who could afford their price in bookstores, but also by those who did not have the means to buy hardcovers and who now had easy and free access to literature and knowledge. Without knowing, Project Gutenberg started what would become the digital age of books by leading the transition from print books to digital books. When the advantages and the success of digital books were seen, a whole new market of online retailers began to take place. The emergence of e-books attracted other authors as well as electronics businesses that saw an opportunity for innovation and big profits. Electronic readers were created, facilitating the electronic reading experience and allowing people to read mobile e-books instead of being fixed to big heavy screens. However, during the 70’s and the 80’s, e-books were mainly specialized, and they attracted segments of the population who were interested in a few available topics. As the internet progressed in the 70’s and the 80’s and e-book electronic reading devices hit the markets, the 90’s Internet advancements allowed the easy spread of e-books from computer to computer through the web, and also the digitalization of a wide variety of genres. This meant that books were made available for people with all tastes and not only for a specialized audience. Reading was able to become a means of entertainment and not only of education and knowledge for the less favored classes, like it had been up to then. Books went from being expensive and unaffordable by many, to being a commodity of which everybody could enjoy. The higher number of genres and of books in the Internet created an increasing demand for e-books, from which online retailers, such as Amazon, took advantage in the mid 1990’s. Businesses took the opportunity to digitalize books and sell them online for cheaper prices than those of their original paper formats. Another big player in the internet was Google, which decided to pay publishers to digitalize books and make certain parts, if not all of them, available for free. Apart from the digitalization of books, reading devices such as Amazon’s Kindle, Barnes Noble’s Nook, and Apple’s Ipad show the huge market that was created due to e-books, and the competition that took and still takes place in the digital world for the monopoly of e-books. 3. Reading experience As mentioned above, thanks to the invention of the print, reading became a common activity and was no longer reserved for a privileged majority. As books spread, illiteracy levels dropped and the audience for books became so diverse that it allowed for the distribution of books of all genres for all cultures and tastes. It was probably thanks to the digitalization of books that sub-genres gained popularity and were not left and forgotten in the shelves of bookstores and libraries. E-books, therefore, revived dead genres and gave an advantage to the ones that already enjoyed from a big demand in paper format. The reading experience has thus changed regarding new audiences reached and more genres available for cheaper prices. Another way in which e-books have benefited the audiences has been through the creation of digital libraries by physical libraries as well as online libraries. Since e-books do not occupy shelf space and they need only to be stored in databases, it is easy for libraries to organize their digitalized books and for customers to find specific topics and authors. In this sense, the process of finding books has been simplified compared to the regular library systems for non-digital versions. The process of digitalization is a long one but once all books become part of the digital library, they are easier to manage and to distribute when people look for them. Electronic libraries allow the storage of large numbers of books in a small memory space, without the need of bookshelves, space and a large staff. Thanks to this storage advantage, libraries can have more books readily available and people have a larger choice and are not limited by the physical space of libraries. At the same time, bookstores with e-book archives can save customers time by giving a faster service and avoiding queues and waiting lists for books that for instance, have no yet arrived to the bookstore or due to distances or to a large demand. Apart from the storage aspects, an important part of the transition from paper to screens has been the unwillingness of certain people to adapt to the electronic forms of books. Hardcover books have been part of cultures for so many centuries that for some people it is not so easy to accommodate to e-readings. The modern world is incredibly digitalized, from music to movies, so the digitalization of books appears to be natural, particularly to the youngest generations. The reading experience between paper books and e-books is clearly different since paper books offer the possibility of reading with more senses alert. For instance, when reading a handcover book, the reader can feel the pages’ texture and the smell of the book, and can see traits that are not present in e-readers, such as worn out and bended pages, which could be seen as a disadvantage, but they can also give a rewarding sensation to the reader who makes his way through the book and can perceive and appreciate how he gets closer to the end. Another element of the charm of paper books is the unhurried reading experience that they offer. This implies the easiness with which books can be transported and the little it matters where the reader is in order to be able to do his reading. Contrary to e-readers, paper books do not require battery charging, careful care from bad weather conditions, uploading or downloading of stories, among other factors. Thus, paper books can be said to be simpler to read and to offer a genuine reading experience that only requires a book and a reader. Despite these reading experience factors, future generations will very probably grow being increasingly familiar with e-books, which will be in favor for the expansion of the e-book market and will result in a further shrinking demand for print books. Children born in the digital age are not be aware of the long way that print books have come from if they are not taught about it, and they probably regard e-books as the initial state of books. Therefore, the reading experience is linked by large to former reading experiences and to the capability to compare e-books to non-digital books from an intellectual and also sentimental or sensorial point of view. 4. Writers and Cost Reductions For writers, the digitalization of books does not necessarily imply negative consequences, since there are several points which are in their favor. These include the possibility of self-publishing, no need for paper, easy editing, and no surpluses. Self-publishing is a great advantage for writers since publishing houses usually get most of the gains, leaving the authors with minimal profits from their own books. By skipping the intermediary, which in this case is the publisher, writers can put their books up in the internet for sale and get all the profits. This approach does have its risks since the advantage of going public through publishers is that they know about the business and they take care of all the steps. There is also the advantage of not needing paper, which again means fewer costs and thus, more gains for the authors. Writers can decide to publish their books directly online without having a print version if they do not wish to. This saves writers from the long lasting period of printing and book assembling before their book is launched. Also, no printing means one intermediary less in the process of book publishing. Working with publishers already costs a lot of money, so cutting any price, in this case paper, printing and assembling prices, is helpful for authors. Related to the paper advantage, is easy editing. Contrary to print books, e-books can be easily edited even if they have been already published; they do not face the inconvenience of having typos that would cost a lot of money to correct. In the case of print books, once the book is printed in big numbers, typos are not possible to correct until the next printings, but by then the public will already have the version with the typos in their hands. Editing also refers to bigger editing other than typos, such as whole passage modifications, which are possible to make in digital versions but not in paper. Writers can also benefit from the lack of book surpluses that result in money put into the rental of warehouses. Surpluses are very common for print books since at the moment of publishing, authors and publishers make an estimate of the books that will be sold, but they might not always be right or even approximate, due to the quality of the writing or of other external factors. In the case of e-books, no printing is necessary and purchases are done digitally so no warehouses are needed. This saves the authors money and allows for investment in other areas such as the advertising of their books. 5. More Readers for Writers. Concerning the readers, they have easy access to books and do not depend merely on the prices offered, since paper books usually cost a lot of money. Even if some digital books can be more expensive than others because of publishers, they are considerably cheaper than paper books. Another advantage for the readers is that they do not need to physically move if they need or want to get an e-book. As mentioned before, they have the advantage of avoiding long library and bookstore queues and waiting lists, and they can have access to the book they want directly from the comfort of their home or computer. These advantages mean that readers look for their books online more readily than they look for physical books, since these require more time, money and efforts. Therefore, writers can benefit for a wider, or at least more active, audience. 6. E-books and Different Genres In the case of the genres affected by the digitalization of books, academic books most probably will not increase their sales and will not be reaching a wider audience, since these books have a specialized audience that does not increase or decrease its demands with the availability of e-books. On the other hand, novels and books of popular genres like science fiction will most probably increase their demand numbers, since they do not require a specialized audience, but can entertain people from all social strata. Science fiction alone accounts for around 20% of all e-book purchases. At the same time, since digital readings offer the possibility of hyperlinks, search engines, and so forth, within or around the text, these distractions affect the reading quality of novels, but not so much the reading quality of dictionaries and cookbooks, for instance. 7. Concerning Publishers. Some of the players who are the most affected by the digitalization of books are publishers, since moving to digital forms has reshaped in the way in which books are marketed and also the costs involved and profits earned. Some of the advantages to publishers are the liberation from the constraints of printing and from surpluses of inventories. Another advantage is that older books that stopped selling on print can be published again in their digital form and reach wider audiences because of the cheaper prices, so profits can be made from book print inactive books. Despite these advantages, the disadvantages are also great. One of the biggest threats of publishing online is piracy, since pirates can easily take the book and distribute it illegally. Another disadvantage is the pricing for e-books in the internet, since different retailers and sellers have at times prices that differ greatly from one another and while big retailers can afford to cut costs and increase sales with some profit losses, small publishers cannot afford such a move. One more important disadvantage for publishers is that there are no more book displays in bookstore shelves that help advertise books. Publishers try, however, to create advertising for their clients through the social web in order to make up for this downfall. A technique used by publishers in order to keep their print sales alive is called â€Å"windowing† and it consists of publishing first the print version of a new book and delaying the e-version to increase the print sales. The idea is not to let people know when the e-version will be available so that they buy the print version and do not wait for the e-book to be published. However, this technique can go wrong and can create losses if the time length between the print and online publishing is not well foreseen. For instance, if the print book is sold out after a week, when the planned time was two months, then people will quickly forget about the book and once it is finally published digitally, it will not have the same effect it had back when there was expectation for the two publishes. A second technique that publishers are using is the publication of segments of a book, which the public can read, and if they like what they see, they are encouraged to make donations so that the author can finish writing the book and that it can be published. This is a very innovative idea, since it allows publishers to avoid surpluses, as well as printing if they decide to do this only with e-books. 8. Libraries Libraries are one of the most important stakeholders of the digitalization of books since they are usually decades all and have invested great sums of money on the local, the books, the maintenance, and so forth. For libraries, the conversion of books into e-books is very expensive because even though it is cheaper than storing physical books, there are far more e-books and therefore, the storage in a digital form is more expensive in the long run. Fortunately for libraries, literature will still be literature and regarded as such, no matter if it’s stored in bookshelves or in databases. This means that library clients would still frequent the library when looking for books, and also because libraries are not just places where books are stored, but also cultural places where people can gather and talk about literature or intellectual topics. At the same time, due to the creation of digital databases, libraries will have to start cutting down personnel and spaces in order to be able to afford the transition to digital forms. 9. Bookstores: Borders In the case of bookstores, they suffer more than libraries from e-books, since bookstores are not a place of consultation but of selling, and when money is involved, customers tend to turn where they can spend the least for the same service. One of the main concerns of bookstores is the low price that is charged for books in e-form, since for the same content there are significant price differences that clearly draw clients away from bookstores to the internet. Another main concern of bookstores is that the space that is used for storing and displaying print books will not be of any use, and even if they create digital databases to sell e-books in their stores, they cannot compete with online venders since they still need to cover local costs such as electricity, personnel, rent, maintenance, etc. Some of the strategies tried out by bookstores in order to survive the digital age is to host book clubs and social gatherings, as well as selling goods other than books. In the case of smaller bookstores, since they cannot compete with the others’ prices, have opted for offering writing classes, for instance, in addition to selling books in their stores. These strategies work in some cases but in others they have not been able to save bookstores from collapsing. On July 2011, the American bookstore giant, Borders, liquidated all of its stores after it went Bankrupt in February 2011. Next with its end went 11,000 lost jobs. In an interview to Border’s President Mike Edwards, he says, Following the best efforts of all parties, we are saddened by this development. We were all working hard toward a different outcome, but the head winds we have been facing for quite some time, including the rapidly changing book industry, [electronic reader] revolution and turbulent economy, have brought us to where we are now. It is clear that Borders was not prepared for the digital wave that hit the book industry, and when it tried to react it was already too late. Borders had big stores and advanced equipment to locate books clients looked for. However, when the digitalization of books started taking place, Borders did not focus on building its own e-book market, but instead it used one of the above mentioned techniques, which was selling other goods, such as CDs and DVDs. It also invested on the infrastructure of its shops instead of taking action in the digital book market. Its main competitor was Barnes Noble, which has managed to survive and keep up by focusing on the promotion of e-books and on the release of its own e-reader, the Nook, which put it directly into the digital market and which allows it to better promote its own digital books. There is still much to be achieved and much competition to achieve from the part of Barnes Noble, but if it continues to accommodate to the digital flow then it is very likely that it will manage to sustain itself. For Borders, for Barnes Nobel, and for all bookstores nowadays, the big competitors are online retailers, especially Amazon, which is considered to be the biggest e-retailer on the web. 10. Online Retailers: Amazon Amazon was founded in the mid 1990’s and started off as an online book seller. With the years, it started expanding its market to multiple areas such as music, software, videogames and toys. Today, it sells an infinite variety of products and covers an international market as one of the biggest online retailers in the world. With the emergence of e-books and the enormous competition that surrounded Amazon, it decided not only to sell digital versions of its books but also to launch its own e-reader, the now famous Kindle. Its main adversary in terms of e-readers was and still is the iPad. In order to keep up with the competition and be the number one on the e-book market, Amazon lowered the price of the Kindle to a level where it was making no profits and was in the contrary, creating losses. The reasoning behind this strategy was to encourage people to buy the Kindle instead of other e-readers, and by buying the Kindle they would be likely to buy the e-books from Amazon too. Up to now, Amazon has been able to keep on competing with Apple, however, both are directed at different customers, since Apple’s iPad is more about design than about e-books, while Amazon’s Kindle is all about the e-books Amazon offers with it. The online retailer has the advantage on making its profits from a wide variety of products and not having to rely completely on e-books only. However, it is today the biggest e-retailer online and its e-books account for an important part of its success, and thanks to its Kindle and its prices it continues its way to dominating the e-book market. The future of Amazon is tightly related to the future of Bookstores and the future of print books. While Amazon continues to offer low prices for digital books, people will keep on turning to the cheaper digital versions and the demand for print books will keep on decreasing. At the same time, the international scope of Amazon and its prices make it difficult for bookstores to compete with it, since they rely on books mainly, while Amazon relies on many other products that it sells successfully online. 11. Conclusion The future of books seems to be as e-books mainly, even though the print versions will most probably continue to play an important role in society due to the historical and emotional charge that they carry. The generations  that grew up with print books are not likely to turn to digital forms too quickly, but as every year since the late 1990’s a new digital generation is born, print books will not have the same meaning they have today, just as they do not have the same meaning today as they had before the rise of the internet. In order for print books to survive, prices need to be lowered, and the most successful way to do this for authors is by self-publishing and reaching the audiences directly. This entails risks, but if print books continue to cost as much as they do today, the demand for them will decrease further with time. In the case of bookstores, for the moment they have no other alternative than to adapt to the digital market and to try to find other sources of income. Perhaps in the future, once the world is used to e-books, just like it is used to CD’s and not to cassettes today, people will look back and start turning to print versions which will be seen as unique and which might gain back the initial prestigious status that they once had when the print was first created. Works Cited Adam, Nabil R. Digital Libraries: Research and Technology Advances : ADL 95 Forum, McLean, Virginia, USA, May 15-17, 1995 : Selected Papers. Berlin: Springer, 1996. Print. Amazon: The Walmart of the Web. The Economist [San Francisco] 1 Oct. 2011: 57-58. Print. Amazons 15th Anniversary: A History of Online Shopping. Time. 16 July 2010. Web. http://www. time. com/time/business/article/0,8599,2004089,00. html. Archiving the Web: Born Digital. The Economist 23 Oct. 2010: 67. Print. Auletta, Ken. The IPad, the Kindle, and the Future of Books. The New Yorker. 26 Apr. 2010. Web. http://www. newyorker. com/reporting/2010/04/26/100426fa_fact_auletta. Background to Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg Australia. Web. http://gutenberg. net. au/background. html. Barnett, Emma. Self Publishing Writer Becomes Million Seller Telegraph. The Telegraph. 21 June 2011. Web. http://www. telegraph. co. uk/culture/books/booknews/8589963/Self-publishing-writer-becomes-million-seller. html. The Books Business: Great Digital Expectations. The Economist 10 Sept. 2011: 63-64. Print. Brooks, Sofie C. Publishing Words: The Future of Books | Arts | The Harvard Crimson. The Harvard Crimson. 20 Sept. 2011. Web. http://www. thecrimson. com/column/innovation-and-art/article/2011/9/20/publishing-books-amazon-new/. Cohen, Dan. The Fight Over the Future of Digital Books Dan Cohen Technology The Atlantic. The Atlantic. 23 Sept. 2011. Web. http://www. theatlantic. com/technology/archive/2011/09/the-fight-over-the-future-of-digital-books/245577/. Crowd-funding Books: A Novel Idea. The Economist 23 July 2011: 58. Print. Eliot, Simon, and Jonathan Rose. A Companion to the History of the Book. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. , 2007. Print. The Endangered Bookstore: Edited Out. The Economist 3 Apr. 2010: 60. Print. The Future of Books: Not Bound by Anything | The Economist. The Economist. 24 Mar. 2007. Web. http://www. economist. com/node/8881446. The Future of Publishing: E-publish or Perish. The Economist 3 Apr. 2010: 59-60. Print. The History of the Internet. Investintech. com. Web. http://www. investintech. com/content/historyinternet/. Howard, Nicole. The Book: the Life Story of a Technology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. Print. Kovacs, Maureen G. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. , 2004. Print. Menn, Joseph. Alliance Helps Google Finally Go into Print with 2m Books. The Financial Times [San Francisco] 18 Sept. 2009: 13. Print. Michael Hart. The Economist 24 Sept. 2011, Obituary sec. : 102. Print. Montgomery, Kathryn C. Children in the Digital Age. Media Awareness Network. Web. http://www. media-awareness. ca/english/resources/special_initiatives/wa_resources/wa_shared/backgrounders/digital_kids. cfm. Noguchi, Yuki. Why Borders Failed While Barnes Noble Survived. National Public Radio. 9 July 2011. Web. http://www. npr. org/2011/07/19/138514209/why-borders-failed-while-barnes-and-noble-survived. Postrel, Virginia. Amazon vs. Apple: What Should E-Book Prices Be? The Atlantic. 2 Feb. 2010. Web. http://www. theatlantic. com/business/archive/2010/02/amazon-vs-apple-what-should-e-book-prices-be/35131/. Printing Yesterday and Today. Harry Ransom Center. Web. http://www. hrc. utexas. edu/educator/modules/gutenberg/books/printing/. Project Gutenberg. Web. http://www. gutenberg. org/wiki/Gutenberg:About. Spector, Mike. Borders Forced to Liquidate, Close All Stores. The Wall Street Journal. 19 July 2011. Web. http://online. wsj. com/article/SB10001424052702303661904576454353768550280. html. Sutter, John D. The Future of Libraries, with or without Books. CNN. 04 Sept. 2009. Web. http://articles. cnn. com/2009-09-04/tech/future. library. technology_1_metropolitan-library-librarians-books? _s=PM:TECH. The Transformation of the Book Industry: Disappearing Ink. The Economist 10 Sept. 2011: 15. Print. Wong, Jackie. Genre-fiction Fans Quell Hunger with E-books. Straight: Vancouvers Online Source. 7 July 2011. Web. http://www. straight. com/article-402353/vancouver/genrefiction-fans-quell-hunger-ebooks. [ 1 ]. Kovacs, Maureen G. The Epic of Gilgamesh (Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. , 2004) 13. [ 2 ]. Eliot, Simon, and Jonathan Rose. A Companion to the History of the Book (Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. , 2007) 87. [ 3 ]. Howard, Nicole. The Book: the Life Story of a Technology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2009) 31. [ 4 ]. Printing Yesterday and Today. Harry Ransom Center. . [ 5 ]. Background to Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg Australia. . [ 6 ]. Michael Hart. The Economist 24 Sept. 2011, Obituary sec. : 102. Print. [ 7 ]. The History of the Internet. Investintech. com.. [ 8 ]. Menn, Joseph. Alliance Helps Google Finally Go into Print with 2m Books. The Financial Times [San Francisco] 18 Sept. 2009: 13. [ 9 ]. Cohen, Dan. The Fight Over the Future of Digital Books Dan Cohen Technology The Atlantic. The Atlantic. 23 Sept. 2011. . [ 10 ]. Adam, Nabil R. Digital Libraries: Research and Technology Advances : ADL 95 Forum, McLean, Virginia, USA, May 15-17, 1995 : Selected Papers (Berlin: Springer, 1996) 244. [ 11 ]. The Future of Books: Not Bound by Anything | The Economist. The Economist. 24 Mar. 2007. . [ 12 ]. Montgomery, Kathryn C. Children in

Comparison of the Egyptian Pyramids and Roman Colosseum

Comparison of the Egyptian Pyramids and Roman Colosseum Chris Flathmann Whether it be shape, material, purpose, or significance, every piece of architecture is uniquely similar and uniquely different to every other piece. Despite being separated by both time and culture, the Roman Colosseum and the Egyptian Pyramids of Giza possess both unique similarities and differences to each other. Like most cultures, Roman architecture tends to derive some elements from previous cultures such as the Egyptian culture. The main similarities between the Colosseum and the Pyramids can be seen in the material used in construction due to similar natural recourses; however, the historical context and purpose of both religion and entertainment differentiate the two cultures architecture Both the Colosseum and Pyramids are great milestones not only in the world of architecture but also engineering. Like most cultures, both Roman and Egyptian architecture tends to use natural resources as materials in construction. The materials used by each culture can be explained by looking at the topography in which they reside. Since Egyptian culture primarily resided in desert regions near running water sources, materials such as limestone were heavily abundant and frequently used in construction. Due to the availability of water for some Egyptian cultures, clay would also be used. Both materials become popular not only because of their abundance but also their support strength and insulating properties. Romans also preferred using more local materials such as mortar, lime, clay, tuff, and travertine; however, Romans set themselves apart by developing cement for the purposes of construction.[1] The benefit of using cement for construction is the ease of formation. Even though bo th cultures had both similar resources, their construction process was highly different. In terms of visual characteristics, the Pyramids of Giza and the Roman Colosseum could not be further apart. The Pyramids of Giza are four sided with triangular faces. The Colosseum utilizes a circular shape to allow 360o spectating. Although the Colosseum uses the newly develop arch for support, many classical elements are still incorporated into it. One of the most noticeable aesthetic aspects of the Colosseum is the use of multiple different types of columns including Ionic and Corinthian. The Colosseum is also designed in layers with each layer consisting of a different type of column in order to show variety in architectural elements. On the other hand, the Pyramids of Giza are closed up and use flat faces rather than rounded construction. Although the exterior of the Pyramids of Giza appear plain, the true style of Egyptian culture can be seen on the inside. Burial chambers located inside the Pyramids were decorated with not only elaborate paintings but also prized possessions of the dead. This tendency to decorate interiors shows the importance that the afterlife played in Egyptian culture. Both the Colosseum and the Pyramids have become symbols of ancient civilization for both Rome and Egypt. The Roman Colosseum exemplifies the well-being and desires of the Roman people. Under emperor Vespasian, construction of the Colosseum began in order to reestablish the prominence of Roman rule after the death of Nero. This construction was started in order to celebrate the reestablishment of the empire and multiple militaristic victories. The Colosseum was primarily used for entertainment when it was first finished under emperor Titus.[2]A large society needs entertainment in order to keep happy citizens. The Roman people were very big into entertainment and extravagant shows; these vices were catered to by functions held in the Colosseum such as gladiator fights and fights against animals in order to show the strength of Romes citizens. This is the Primary difference between the Colosseum and the Pyramids. The Pyramids were primarily built in dedication to pharaohs who were cons idered gods and would need a resting place for the afterlife. Although Rome used architecture to show the power of its society, Egypt used it to show the power of its leaders. The Pyramids were also single use buildings that were used for burial places for fallen pharaohs such as Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaura. The Pyramids of Giza not only acted as burial places for pharaohs but also their families. These tombs would even be decorated and furnished for the dead to enjoy in the afterlife.[3] Since the pyramids were burial places, most were sealed off to the public. One the other hand, the Colosseum saw heavy use after its construction due to events so it was given a very open design to accommodate for large amounts of people. These differences show how cultural differences can result in major changes for both the purpose and the design of a building. The Egyptian Pyramids and Roman Colosseum show how a pieces of architectures building materials and construction process and heavily differ based on the purpose and historical context under which they were constructed. While Roman Culture primarily used architecture utilized large public space, the Egyptians tendency to dedicate buildings leaders led to large private constructions that were primarily used for display and spiritual purposes. Both the geographical and topographical separation between Egypt and Rome allowed Rome to create a unique style that still drew small elements from ancient cultures such as Egypt. Vespasian; Titus; Domitian, Roman Colosseum, 70 AD, Architecture (cement, Lime, Tile, etc†¦) Unknown, Pyramids of Giza, c. 2325 BC, Architecture (Limestone, clay) [1] The-Colosseum.net. Materials. [cited 2/14 2017]. Available from http://www.the-Colosseum.net/architecture/materials_en.htm√. [2] The-Colosseum.net. Materials. [cited 2/14 2017]. Available from http://www.the-Colosseum.net/architecture/materials_en.htm√. [3] The Editors of Encyclopedia Britanica. Pyramids of giza. in Britanica [database online]. 2016 [cited 2/15 2017]. Available from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pyramids-of-Giza.

Essay --

Tea tree oil was introduced to me in 2009 when I experimented in a series of piercings. A friend at the time informed me of the medicinal uses and how it was effective on scar tissue. However the plant in which the oil is extracted from is far more entertaining. Tea Tree (Malaleuca alternifolia) is a plant belonging to the Myrtaceae family, known for their cleansing properties. There are over two hundred recognized species of Myrtaceae which majority is native to Australia. However a few species from the Myrtaceae family occur in Malesia, New Caledonia and as of the mid-1880’s M. quinquenervia was introduced, as an invasive species to Florida to assist in drying out swampy lands. The indigenous people of northeastern New South Wales historically had known about the healing mechanics of their native tea trees for thousands of years. They used them as disinfectants to treat minor cuts and wounds. Eventually they progressed in the knowledge of the plants uses and found that by inhaling evaporative oil from the leaves that it alleviated congestion and respiratory tract infections. Figure A. Order: Myrtlales, Family: Myrtaceae. Characteristic of the myrtle family is its use of distilled essential oils, such as Tea tree oil (Melaleuca oil) Compound Background The leaves of M. alternifolia are the primary part of the plant that is used. Rarely twigs from the tree is also used, it hasn’t been proven to be anymore or less effective to use the twigs. To create the oil, the leaves are extracted and harvested for a few days leaving the leaves to wilt. Essentially the leaves are limp through heat and deprived of water. The leaves are then inserted into a boiler with even temperature, distilling the leaves. Eventually both the steam and t... ...uman rights laws protect them. However there is no uniformed legislation that directly protects indigenous medical knowledge. When regarding the plant of interest Malaleuca alternifolia, it is in deed protected because of its indigenous heritage to Australia. Tea tree oil coming from M. alternifolia proves to be the main source for commercial tea tree that is manufactured and shipped around the world. However tea tree oil can be extracted from other plants within the Malaleuca genus. Which unfortunately has left M. viridiflora an endangered species providing more protection to the specific plant. Regarding the current situation presented in Australia, the conditions seem optimal for protection of their indigenous knowledge and organic compounds. They have many laws to protect themselves from outside thieves and are very developed concerning them as a world status.

The Statue Of Liberty Essay -- essays research papers

There are few objects that can be compared to the significance of the figure known as the Statue of Liberty. It is one of the greatest works of its time and still stands today as a meaningful entity of independence to the world. The statue is a great tribute to the concept of global freedom that had its roots in America. It was created to display the worldwide objective of peace and tranquility. The fact that another model of this icon stands today in a world capital shows the effect that this figure has inscribed upon the world. In addition, it represents the ideas that the United States was built upon and those that the people have lived by to this very day. Its most paramount features in its role through American history are its creation and history, the characteristics the statue possesses, and its symbolic relevance on the world. The creation of the statue was one of the most complex processes that she went through throughout her long life. The honor of the inception of the statue was given to Frederic Auguste Bartholdi, a French sculptor who specialized in the arts. Bartholdi acquired his success early in his life at the tender age of nineteen. He was often the subject of scorn and contempt by fellow artists, but never allowed himself to be put down by their petty insults. His true potential was indeed revealed through the creation of the statue. The statue was not a project without problems. It had a late start, considering that it was supposed to be completed in time for the one-hundredth birthday of the United States. A substantial number of delays also threatened the effectuation by the deadline. One of the more considerable problems was money. The Statue almost never lived to see New York harbor due to lack of fun... ...ction to this day was considered insignificant, as the entire country seemed to have lost their minds in anticipation for such an exciting event. Liberty was greeted with enthusiasm and exhilaration. The President himself had shown up for the joyous occasion. Congress had accepted the proposal to keep Liberty as a lighthouse and opened the treasury to New York. Many important people and dignitaries had turned up for the milestone moment. Furthermore, it was a distinguished historical occurrence, marking the 110th birthday since the signing of the Declaration of Independence. France was regarded as the United States? sister republic in the East. As President Grover Cleveland said to the people of America, ?Reflected thence and joined with answering rays, a steam of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man?s oppression until Liberty enlightens the world.?

Dulce et decorum est :: Free Essays

Dulce et Decorum est is a poem written about the first world war. Its Wilfred Owens first hand account of World War I, the War that, ultimately, killed him. Wilfred Owen was an anti-war poet. He wrote of the horrible conditions encounter by the young soldier in the trenches. Owen used imagery to portray the horrors of war, he paints a vivid picture with his words. This is especially evident when he writes: â€Å"If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs, Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues,- â€Å" When you hear these words you can almost feel the pain of the people experiencing it. The author chooses to use raw, real words to get his message across. Unlike many other poets who would use flowing, beautiful phrases, as to almost make you forget about the horrid subject matter being discussed, Wilfred Owen poem has an unconventional structure to make the reader think outside the box. There is hardly any rhythm, in order to portray the chaos surrounding him. The last line of the poem: The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori. Witch is Latin for ‘it is a sweet and glorious thing to die for ones country’ is VERY fitting to end this poem. Dieing at war is anything but â€Å"sweet and glorious† and the poet recognizes that this is nothing more then an â€Å"old lie.† No one WHO has experienced war first hand thinks that it is noble and honorable. The memories of war haunt their dreams. Wilfred Owen states In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning. The memories of his companions dieing make it that much harder to see the meaning behind the warfare. Fighting doesn’t bring peace.

Prevention of Healthcare Associated Infections in Developing

Introduction: Developing countries are normally defined as those lacking the level of nationwide industrialization, infrastructure and technological advances normally found in Western Europe and North America. The vast majority of countries in Africa, Asia, Central & South America, Oceania and the Middle East fall in this developing category and often face addition challenges in terms of lower levels of literacy and standards of living. Nevertheless, within this broad group, there are various sub-categories, each having different characteristics as well as economic strengths.Indeed some are relatively wealthy oil exporting nations or newly industrializing world economies; a considerable number are middle income countries. At the end of the development scale lie around fifty very poor nations with predominantly agricultural economies, which tend to be heavily dependent on external aid. From a medical perspective, many developing countries are often characterised by significant health and hygiene issues. Indeed it has been estimated that more than 1 billion inhabitants in these countries do not have access to safe water and even less to basic sanitation (1).Around 1. 5 million children in the developing world die per year; diarrhoea is responsible for more than 80% of these deaths (2). One of the reasons for this state of affairs is the low expenditure and budgetary allocation within the poorer countries of the world towards health. Indeed the proportion of annual expenditure for health related initiatives in many developing countries is often less than 5% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), sometimes less than 0. 1% (3). Healthcare associated infections in developing countriesUnlike more affluent countries, infectious diseases continue to pose a heavy burden of morbidity as well as mortality in developing nations (4). Amongst the more important disease entities are a wide range of respiratory diseases including tuberculosis, various gastrointestinal infections, AID S and HIV plus a spate of parasitic infestations of which malaria is the most significant. However this situation is not limited to ambulatory settings and is equally relevant within healthcare institutions.Deficient infrastructures, rudimentary equipment and a poor quality of care contribute towards incidences of nosocomial infections which have been estimated to be between 2-6 times higher than those in developed nations (5). In many instances, such figures are often guesstimates because surveillance systems are often either non existent or else unreliable. However, the limited studies on prevalence of healthcare associated infections in some developing countries in the world suggest that up to 40% of these are probably preventable (5).This situation appears to particularly severe within intensive care settings where up to 60 to 90 infections per 1000 care-days have been reported; excess mortality rates in more severe infections such as blood stream and lower respiratory infection s approaches 25% in adults and more than 50% in neonates (6). The challenges of infection in healthcare facilities within developing nations is also of a wider spectrum than that normally found in equivalent hospitals in the western world.Numerous publications have highlighted the frequency by which normally community infections, such as cholera, measles and enteric pathogens, spread nosocomially within such institutions (7, 8). In many instances outbreaks are traceable to an index case who would have been inappropriately managed in a background of overcrowding and limited hospital hygiene. Similar cases of transmission have also been reported in the case of respiratory infections including measles (9).Tuberculosis transmission in healthcare facilities is a major occurrence in many African countries as well as parts of Asia and Latin America (10). In many instances this disease is strongly related to the rise of HIV within these same geographical regions and is not uncommonly compli cated by increasing prevalence of multi drug resistant mycobacteria. Blood borne infections are not restricted to HIV alone. Hepatitis B remains a major nosocomial pathogen in many hospitals within the developing world (11).More dramatic and life threatening have been outbreaks of viral haemorrhagic fevers in institutions within several countries in the African continent (12). Hospitals are also liable to healthcare associated infection caused by more conventional pathogens which, just like in their western counterparts, can carry the additional burden of antimicrobial resistance (4). Unfortunately data on the prevalence of resistance in nosocomial pathogens is poorly documented in the developing world. However recent publications suggest that this may be even more common than in developed countries.Recent publications from the Mediterranean region have highlighted proportions of meticillin resistance Staphylococcus aureus to exceed 50% in several countries in the Middle East with r esistance to third generation cephalosporins in E. coli exceeding 70% in some participating hospitals (13). There may be diverse and often complex backgrounds to this epidemiological situation. Factors facilitating transmission and management of nosocomial infections The infrastructure of healthcare facilities in some of the poorer nations often lacks basic requirements for the prevention of transmission of infectious diseases.Inadequate or unsafe water supply together with lack of resources or equipment for affective environmental cleaning is often compounded by significant overcrowding due to inadequate beds to cope with demand (14). There is often lack of strategic direction as well as effective planning for healthcare delivery at both national as well as local levels. A functional sterilisation department is by no means a standard occurrence in every hospital, even in the larger urban institutions.Other areas of concern include poor awareness or knowledge about communicable dise ase transmission amongst healthcare workers and lack of commitment within senior management (15). This is particularly relevant in developing countries where nurses, doctors and patients are often unaware of the importance of infection control and its relevance to safe healthcare (16). Medical practitioners may have a tendency to be heavily committed towards individual patients and disinclined to think of them in groups, a concept which is the antithesis of basic infection prevention and control (17).They are often unaware of risks of nosocomial infections, attributing such possible developments to be natural or inevitable (18). On the other hand, nurses have more intimate contact with patients and are trained to take care of patients in groups. Although this increases the potential to serve as sources of cross-transmission, nurses are likely to more positive towards infection control policies. However this is hindered by the comparatively lower status offered to nurses in the devel oping world and also complicated by a gender bias in environments where emancipation of women has been slow.Attitudes of senior medical staff may further compound the problem through personality clashes, resistance to change or improvement as well as reluctance to work in tandem with other health professionals. Non existent litigation further accentuates lack of accountability at various levels. Furthermore, many patients have limited expectations, already regarding themselves fortunate to have any sort of institutional care and as a result accept a significant degree of morbidity as part of their hospital stay. It must be emphasised that even in the poorer countries, this set of circumstances is by no means universal in all hospitals.It is not uncommon that, even where most of the hospitals in a country lack all these basic requirements, individual institutions (often either private or NGO managed) would be in a position to offer healthcare as well as infection control standards of the highest quality. However it would only be a small minority of patients, often coming from a more affluent background, that would be able to benefit from them. The risks of infection in hospitals within the developing world are not only restricted to the patients who receive care within them.Occupational health is an equally low priority in many of these facilities and, as a result, it is not uncommon for healthcare workers to also be exposed and become infected by pathogens causing healthcare associated infections, including viral hepatitis, HIV and tuberculosis. In such limited resource environments and in situations where medical practice is biased towards intervention rather than prevention, it is not surprising that basic infection control programmes are often lacking, particularly in smaller hospitals in rural areas (18).Even within larger urban facilities, infection control teams, composed of both an infection control nurse as well as doctor, who have been trained and hav e managerial backup are very much in the minority. They are often restricted to academic institutions, heavily funded government or private tertiary care units. Even where present, these teams tend to encounter numerous logistical obstacles including lack administrative, clerical and IT support. Infection control output therefore tends to be significantly variable; policies and procedures are either absent or lack consultation, evidence base or suitable addressing f local needs. Healthcare professionals also face significant challenges in the diagnosis and treatment of infectious disease (4). Diagnostic facilities are often lacking. Laboratories may be absent or limited as a result of inadequate resources of both a material as well as human resource nature. Trained laboratory scientists are very much in the minority whereas the implementation of quality control programs to ensure validity in the laboratory’s output is not viewed as a crucial.This situation is worsened by poss ible lack of confidence in the laboratory from clinicians who would prefer to undertake treatment blindly, based only on clinical judgement or recommendations from other countries rather than local epidemiology. One reason for this is the lack of feedback of local resistance data (20). This risks inappropriate treatment which would not properly cover local resistance prevalence patterns. Another major factor hindering the treatment of infectious disease is the presence of poor quality antimicrobials, even counterfeit, with little or no active ingredient within the formulation (21).Addressing the challenge It is therefore clear that in order to improve the effectiveness of infection control in many developing countries, a multifactorial set of initiatives needs to be undertaken that are both feasible as well as achievable in this background of economical and social deficits (15). It is essential that infection control teams increase their presence within hospitals in these regions. T hese key personnel must be provided with the necessary training as well as administrative support and facilities in order to deliver the required services.Such teams would be able to identify the major challenges and assess relevant risks through tailored surveillance programmes. Surveillance constitutes a challenge in such environments since it is often time consuming and resource dependent (22). In addition it requires a reasonable level of laboratory support. Nevertheless it is possible using simplified definitions of healthcare associated infections, as suggested by the World Health Organisation, to achieve a surveillance programme even with very limited resources (23).Such initiatives need to concentrate on the more serious infections and document their impact in the respective facility. Trained infection control personnel would also be appropriate drivers to eliminate wasteful practices which siphon resources away from truly effective practices. Dogmas include routine use of d isinfectants for environmental cleaning, use of unnecessary personal protective equipment such as overshoes, excessive waste management procedures which treat all waste generated in the hospital as infectious.Infection Control teams will be able to spearhead cost-effective interventions based on training of healthcare workers to comply with relevant infection control measures related to standard precautions, isolation together with occupational health and safety. It is possible to achieve significant reduction in the prevalence of healthcare associated infections through low cost measures; interventions aimed at preventing cross transmission of infection are particularly effective. There is no doubt that one of the most cost effective interventions in limited resource environments is improved compliance with hand hygiene.The World Health Organisation has indeed designated improvement of health hygiene within healthcare facilities worldwide as a priority and chose this topic for its first Global Patient Safety Challenge under the banner ‘Clean Care is Safer Care’ (6). A comprehensive set of tools have been tested worldwide in pilot hospitals, the majority of which were in developing countries. The emphasis of this initiative focuses on the availability and utilisation of alcohol hand rub for patient contact situations where hands are physically clean.This is made possible through local manufacture of inexpensive, good quality products according to a validated formula. A multimodal strategy requires these alcohol hand rub containers to be available at point of care and for the staff of the hospital to receive adequate training and education in their use. Hand hygiene practices are monitored and feedback on performance regularly provided to the users. Reminders in the workplace sensitise awareness and belief amongst healthcare workers in general.Infection prevention and control in healthcare facilities within the developing world continues to offer n umerous challenges as a result of reduced resources related to socio-economics, infrastructure and human resources. However it is possible to achieve substantial progress even within such challenging circumstances through a programme led by trained and empowered infection control professionals. Such initiatives need to concentrate on low cost, high impact interventions and emphasis on training, backed by interaction and networking with colleagues and societies within the country itself and beyond.References: 1. Moe CL, Rheingans RD. Global challenges in water, sanitation and health. J Water Health. 2006; 4 Suppl 1:41-57. 2. Boschi-Pinto C, Velebit L, Shibuya K. Estimating child mortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries. Bull World Health Organ. 2008;86:710-7. 3. World Health Organization. Implementation of the global strategy for health for all by the year 2000. Eighth report on the world health situation. Volume 6 Eastern Mediterranean Region. Second Evaluation. World Heal th Organization. Regional Office Eastern Mediterranean Region, Alexandria, Egypt; 1996. 4. Shears P.Poverty and infection in the developing world: healthcare-related infections and infection control in the tropics. J Hosp Infect. 2007; 67:217-24. 5. Wenzel RP. Towards a global perspective of nosocomial infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1987;6:341-3. 6. Pittet D, Allegranzi B, Storr J et al. Infection control as a major World Health Organization priority for developing countries. J Hosp Infect. 2008;68:285-92. 7. Mhalu FS, Mtango FD, Msengi AE. Hospital outbreaks of cholera transmitted through close person to person contact, Lancet 1984; ii: 82–84. 8. Vaagland H, Blomberg B, Kruger C, Naman M, Jureen R, Langeland N.Nosocomial outbreak of neonatal Salmonella enteritidis in a rural hospital in northern Tanzania. BMC Infect Dis 2004; 4: 35. 9. Marshall TM, Hlatswayo D, Schoub B. Nosocomial outbreaks – a potential threat to the elimination of measles? J Infect Dis 2003; 187 :S97–S101. 10. Mehtar S. Lowbury Lecture 2007: infection prevention and control strategies for tuberculosis in developing countries – lessons learnt from Africa. J Hosp Infect. 2008; 69:321-7. 11. Lynch P, Pittet D, Borg MA, Mehtar S. Infection control in countries with limited resources. J Hosp Infect. 2007; 65 Suppl 2:148-50 12.Fisher-Hoch SP. Lessons from nosocomial haemhorragic fever outbreaks. Br Med Bull 2005: 73: 123-137 13. Borg MA, Scicluna E, de Kraker M et al. Antibiotic resistance in the southeastern Mediterranean–preliminary results from the ARMed project. Euro Surveill. 2006;11:164-7. 14. Borg MA, Cookson BD, Gur D et al. Infection control and antibiotic stewardship practices reported by south-eastern Mediterranean hospitals collaborating in the ARMed project. J Hosp Infect. 2008 PMID:18783850. 15. Damani N. Simple measures save lives: an approach to infection control in countries with limited resources.J Hosp Infect. 2007;65 Suppl 2:151-4. 16. Sob ayo EI. Nursing aspects of infection control in developing countries. J Hosp Inf 1991; 18: 388-391. 17. Meers PD. Infection control in developing countries. J Hosp Inf 1988; 11: 406 – 410. 18. Ponce-de-Leon S. The needs of developing countries and the resources required. J Hosp Inf 1991; 18: 378-381. 19. Raza MW, Kazi BM, Mustafa M, Gould FK. Developing countries have their own characteristic problems with infection control. J Hosp Infect. 2004; 57:294-9. 20. Borg MA, Cookson BD, Scicluna E; ARMed Project Steering Group and Collaborators.Survey of infection control infrastructure in selected southern and eastern Mediterranean hospitals. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2007;13:344-6. 21. Lynch P, Rosenthal VD, Borg MA, Eremin SR. Infection Control: A Global View in Jarvis WR: Bennett & Brachman’s Hospital Infections; 2007. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia. 22. Damani N. Surveillance in Countries with Limited Resources. Int. J. Infect Contr 2008; 4:1 23. World Healt h Organisation. Prevention of hospital acquired infections: A Practical Guide. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2002. WHO/CDR/EPH/2002. 12.

System integration

>The term integration is inserted in technical papers, e-mail messages, correspondence, proposals, and even causal conversations. After many years of project work, and many misunderstandings and failed meetings and workshops, it can only be stated that the word has multiple and misunderstood meanings. For technical papers (research and trade), the term must be provided with context, or it is impossible to have a meaningful conversation. Next, multiple alternative definitions (that are valid in the literature for the appropriate context) are presented and explained in some detail.Research limitations/implications – The paper is not exhaustive, since new definitions of integration may exist or may emerge. Originality/value – The main contribution of the paper is that it yields clarity on a key term that is frequently used in information systems research. The paper is useful to any researchers or practitioners who are focused on enterprise system implementation. Keywords I ntegration, Interface management, Applications, Information systems, Research Paper type General review Introduction and importance Integration is a common term in the enterprise systems literature.Seldom does a meeting occur when the word is not used multiple times and often within quite technical contexts. Unfortunately, our experience is that individuals often have a different understanding of the meaning of the word. Loosely speaking, there is a general consensus that integration concerns making applications work together that were never intended to work together by passing information through some form of interface. This is certainly part of the context, but this paper argues that there is more to be said.Since the earliest days of computing, the term â€Å"integration† has been seed in both the trade and academic literature to describe a process, a condition, a system, and an end-state. Given that these competing labels have very different meanings, their indiscriminate usage is often obscure and invites confusion. For example, a sloppy conflation of process and condition encourages circular definitions that possess little explanatory power. Consider the following advertisement (Figure 1) from the Oracle Corporation and the corresponding quote from the Oracle CEO, Larry Ellison.Figure 1 is clearly an appeal for a type of integration that we call â€Å"Big l,† having all relevant data aligned with a ingle data model and stored only once. The implication is that you can place all of your data for the set of business processes listed in the middle column of Figure 1 inside of the Oracle E-Business Suite and significantly reduce total cost of ownership (TCO). In fact, the advertisement claims that Oracle saved over $1 billion USED per year by implementing Big l.And also, there are the problems with complexity and managing scope integrity across multiple data sources (Gulled and Summer, 2004). Consider Figure 2 from an unnamed company. Figure 2 shows a situation that is described in the literature as â€Å"systems integration;† . E. The interfacing of systems together so they can pass information across a complex technology landscape. We call this type of integration a form of â€Å"Little I,† and we note that this form of Little I (point-to-point interfaces) is an expensive proposition.Data must be constantly harmonize and cleansed across multiple data sources, and any changes to one system can lead to complex and costly re-testing or even re-design and coding of interfaces. Clearly, we have presented two extremes, and by and large both have been rejected by large organizations world wide. Most organizations do not want to include all of their data in one application (e. G. Oracle, SAP, Microsoft, etc. ) for a number of different reasons, but at the same time, no one wants the problems that are associated with implementations like that shown in Figure 2.There are other options. In fact there are many options , and that is the point of this paper. All of the options (including the two above) are called integration. So what is integration? As one might guess, it depends on the context, and the usage must be qualified. Big I may not achievable, and it may not even be appropriate. If Little I is appropriate, what type of Little I is appropriate, given the situation and the state of 7 Figure 2. Interfacing systems components to define an enterprise solution emerging technologies?This paper addresses those questions, and it also categorizes the most used forms of Little I in the context of enterprise system implementation. This categorization and associated discussion is essential, or it is impossible to have a meaningful discourse about application integration. Integration – Big I To establish a baseline, the following definition is proposed for integration. Integration (Big l) – integration implies that all relevant data for a particular bounded and closed set of business proc esses is processed in the same software application.Updates in one application module or component are reflected throughout the business process logic, with no complex external interfacing. Data are stored once, and it is instantaneously shared by all business processes that are enabled by the software application. This is a rather comprehensive and restrictive definition that revives memories of first generation enterprise resource planning (ERP). The business process implications of Big I are discussed in some detail by Gulled and Summer (2003).To preserve clarity throughout this paper, the above definition will always be referred to as â€Å"Big l. † Big I is definitely the goal of management, especially for mundane business processes. This implies â€Å"one source of truth† for those business processes that are enabled by core ERP solutions. The concept is simple: if all data are stored once and shared, then integrity issues are less likely to occur. The TCO is sig nificantly less, since interfaces across application components are not required. Furthermore, complexity is significantly reduced. MEDS 8 Figure 3 shows how Big I relates to Little I for a simple example related to US Army Logistics. In this example, Army Logistics processes are scoped with the SAP solution as Big l; I. E. There is no interfacing across the SAP components. However, some of the logistics business processes flow outside of the Army. In this case, we indicate the transportation processes that are part of the end-to-end logistics business processes, but they fall outside of the Army, and they are managed by the US Transportation Command (TRANSOM).The systems that support this segment of the end-to-end process are not SAP, and they are not even owned by the army. This is a classical composite application[3] and some form of Little I is must be implemented in order to preserve the integrity of the business process logic[4]. Figure 3, even though a simple picture, shows m uch about integration. First, it suggests that large and complex organizations are unlikely to place all of their business processes in a single application.While assertions of Figure 1 are accurate, there are at least two reasons why single instance ERP will not occur in most firms: (1) he internet opened more options for Little I; and (2) the culture and control of the internal and external system integration communities will not allow such consolidation. Like it or not, given the current state of technology, we are going to have to live with is a mixture of Big I and Little I, at least as long as the current trends continue.The reality of this situation is reinforced by the fact that the larger software providers are â€Å"opening† their products and making them more flexible for mix and match Figure 3. An example of Big I and Little I in the same enterprise opportunities with Little I. This is evidenced by such products as the Oracle Data Hubs and SAP Interweave technolog ies. While it is true, Just as Figure 1 shows, that the TCO could be reduced by moving to Big l, most organizations do not have the flexibility nor the desire to do that. However, this does not mean that Big I is dead.There will always be pockets of Big l; connected by Little I, to other pockets of Big l. This is not a technical assertion, but is directly related to common sense. For example, one would never â€Å"rip† a product like SAP core ERP apart and then interface it back together again. This is self inflicted main, and it can be avoided by Just implementing the product the way it was intended to be implemented[5]. Preserve the integrity of the product by implementing Big I whenever possible, and use Little I to include those components that cannot be included in the integration domain.One would never dream of separating financial from materials in an SAP implementation, and then interface it back together again. Or even worse, it makes even less sense to stand up inde pendent SAP solutions in different divisions of a company, operating as a family or fiefdom, with the absence of an enterprise orientation. We will revisit implementation options later, but before doing that, we must further explore the options for Little I. The choice of a particular little I technology has significant implications for the types of mix and match options that are available for consideration.Integration (Little I) As previously mentioned, all forms of Little I are some form of interfacing, even though they are loosely called â€Å"system integration. † Much has been written on the subject, so we only focus on those types of Little I that are most relevant for the implementation of enterprise systems: point-to-point integration; database-to-database integration; data warehouse integration; enterprise application integration (EAI); application server integration; and business-to-business (BIB) integration.Point-to-point integration This is the most expensive for m of integration. Point-to-point integration is the pair wise development of interfaces among systems. The data model of the target and source system are known, and someone (e. G. A system integrator) develops the code for passing information back and forth. Sometimes accelerator products are used, a good example being the IBM Miseries of middleware products that are now included as a part of Webster. Miseries does require writing code at both the source and target system.The approach to point-to-point integration is well known, most frequently involving changing both applications to use a middleware layer, by rewriting the transaction handling code to communicate across the two applications. The traditional model of interaction is through remote function calls. The largest problem with point-to-point integration is shown in Figure 4, a situation that Schafer (2002) attributes to a customer situation. 9 10 Figure 4. Example of point-to-point integration As the number of interfaced c omponents is increased, the number of interfaces to be maintained increases dramatically.The TCO likewise increases. As a real example consider the financial interfaces to a Navy SAP solution that is shown in Figure 5[6]. Figure 5 is a good example of the previously mentioned case that can arise when financial are separated from materials or assets in an enterprise solution and then must be interfaced back to the ERP product, violating the integrity of the solution. While Figure 5 is reality and could not be easily avoided, the SAP product was never intended to be implemented in this way. The integrity of the product is violated by destroying the Big I that is engineered into the product.For all of the reasons previously mentioned, point-to-point integration should be avoided and only be used when there are no other options. Database-to-database integration This form of Little I, requires the sharing of information at the database level; hence, providing interoperable applications. The basic replication solution leverages features built into many databases to move information between databases as long as they maintain the same schema information on all sources and targets. There are companies that provide middleware to accelerate this process.Database and replication software are provided by companies such as Pervasive Integration Architect and Denominator's Constellate Hub that permit moving information among many different database products with different schema. Figure 6 shows the conceptual layout for this form of Little I. While this integration procedure may work well for database applications, it does not work so well for enterprise applications. Most enterprise applications have 11 Figure 5. From defense financial and accounting services to the US Navy Pilot SAP implementations Figure 6.Conceptual layout for database-to-database 12 multi-tiered architectures, where even though the applications reside at a separate tier, the business process logic is â €Å"bound† to the master data. So, if one simply passes information at the database level, it is easy to create data integrity problems. Enterprise software vendors typically publish application program interfaces (Apish) that allow interfacing at the application level, and it is best to use these Apish. If you update the database without using the Apish, then you are violating the Big I that is engineered into the product, and integrity problems are a likely result.See that Anonymous (1999) article in enterprise development where some of these difficulties are discussed within the context of interfacing with SAP's R/3 product. For enterprise implementations, this form of Little I should be avoided. Data warehouse integration This form of Little I is similar to database-to-database integration, but instead of replicating data across various databases, a single Martial database† is used to map the data from any number of physical databases, which can be various brands, m odels, or schema.In other words, a new data warehouse is created, and information is aggregated from a number of sources, where it may be analyzed or used for report generation. The effectiveness of this approach depends on the sophistication of the tools that are used and the quality of the data that is pulled from the various sources. Once the data are aggregated, reporting is straight forward; however, if business process logic must be applied to the aggregated data, then that logic must be created at the data warehouse level.The basic layout for data warehouse integration is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7. Conceptual view of data arouses integration If the integration is at the database level, the same problems associated with database-to-database integration that were mentioned above still apply. If the integration is at the application level, then data warehouse integration is similar to point-to-point integration, and the problems with that approach also apply. This form of inte gration is quite popular, even though it is expensive to maintain.The reason that data warehouse integration is popular, is that it allows all parties involved to maintain their individual stove-piped environments while sharing selective data in a auteur environment. In short, one is trading Big I for autonomy. An example of a large data warehouse integration effort in the US Army is shown in Figure 8. The logistics integrated database (LIDS) contains aggregates information from many stand-alone systems, with the objective of providing enterprise-level analytics. As the fugue indicates, the input data are aggregated from many sources, and output data are pushed to many sources.Constant cleansing and harmonistic is required in order to avoid integrity problems. Many enterprise solutions, like those from SAP and Oracle, use data warehouse lotions for reporting and enterprise analytics. However, this static view of enterprise data are not the same as Big l. Even if the concept is exten ded to include a federated query capability with the data warehouse being a virtual repository of metadata, this is still no substitute for Big l. However, the big problem, as previously mentioned, is the maintaining of business process logic at the data warehouse level.While this option preserves organizational autonomy, it is indeed costly. The data that are pushed into the warehouse must be constantly monitored for quality, and NY changes in any one of the target or source systems create significant testing and/ or additional coding problems. 13 Figure 8. A conceptual view of the LIDS 14 Figure 9. Hub and spoke architecture for enterprise application integration Enterprise application integration EAI is the sharing of data and business process logic across hetero/homogeneous instances through message-oriented-middleware (MOM). EAI may be managed by packaged vendors (e. . SAP and Oracle) or through solutions provided by third party vendors (e. G. MM, Webmasters, etc. ). EAI is som etimes called application-centric interfacing. EAI is used to connect multiple systems at the application or database levels, using a form of middleware that is sometimes called a broker. The middleware moves information in and out of multiple systems, using pre-engineered â€Å"connectors. † The connectors are a source of competitive advantage for EAI software providers, because if a connector already exists for the target and source application, the cost of interface development can be reduced.The problems associated with point-to-point integration are reduced by adopting a hub and spoke model for sharing information. The EAI Middleware allows one to rite a single interface between each application and the middleware, instead of individually connecting each application to every other application. An example of a hub and spoke architecture is shown in Figure 9. Once the information is extracted, it is sent to a central server using some sort of messaging system, where the in formation is processed and routed to the target system.If there is a gap in required business process logic, the logic can be created on the central server for execution. In theory, any-to-any document swap is possible, considering the business process logic in the source and target systems. Using â€Å"connectors,† the EAI software processes messages from packaged applications, databases, and custom applications using a queuing engine. When an event occurs (e. G. A transaction in an ERP package or a database table update), a message is published to the queue about the event.Subscribers to queue access the event envelope, analyze the content, and if it is intended for processing in the target system, the envelope contains everything necessary for recreating the event in the target system. The queuing engine ensures that all events are processed in the correct sequence, ensuring transactional integrity. Many companies provide pre-packaged EAI solutions, and the market is extre mely competitive. The hub and spoke model using connectors has been operational for many years, and the products have reached a mature level.However, we note that EAI is still interfacing, and while this is a significant improvement over point-to-point integration, EAI can be costly to implement and costly to maintain. The main benefits flow from being able to use â€Å"partially configured† connectors, while leverage industry partnerships which yield certified interfaces. Tremendous consolidation has occurred n recent years in companies that provide EAI solutions as the larger software providers have moved in to provide EAI solutions that interact with their Big I products.For example, SAP now supports EAI as part of its Interweave[7] solution, where previously SAP had used third party providers like IBM and Webmasters to provide EAI capabilities. It is also important to note that EAI is typically used inside the enterprise, as opposed to across the enterprise. For this reas on EAI is sometimes called application-centric interfacing. The objective is to interfaces processes and share data within the enterprise. The inter-enterprise model falls under a class of solutions that are called Business-to-Business commerce, and this form of interfacing will be discussed in a later section.Application server integration This is the most sophisticated form of Little I that is discussed in this paper. Think of application server integration as the creation of a single, centralized application (logical or physical) that can provide a common set of services to any number of other remote applications. These â€Å"services† are common business objects that are shared across enterprise applications. The sharing and reuse of services is the goal of distributed objects and applications servers.Application server integration enables the enterprise by sharing services across the enterprise. The concept of application server integration is shown in Figure 10. Modern systems invoke shared objects to share business logic and interact with resources (such as databases, ERP systems, or queues). In modern ERP systems these shared objects may be more highly aggregated as â€Å"wrapped† transactions. For example, when configuring the SAP solution, one aligns transactions with process steps. A process step could be associated with one or more transactions.If the transactions associated with a process step are bundled together and â€Å"wrapped† as a web service, then they may be shared across other SAP and non-SAP components. SAP calls this aggregated object an â€Å"Enterprise Service,† and it is the basis of SAP's Enterprise Services Architecture (SAP GAG, 2004). Application integration occurs through the sharing of business logic, as well as through the back-end integration of many different applications and resources. The application server â€Å"binds† the data from a relational or relational-object database to he commo n shared objects.The main advantage of application server integration is that 15 16 Figure 10. Application server integration concept the interfaced applications or components are tightly coupled to each other by sharing methods. By our assessment, application server integration is Little I, but given the limits of current technology it is the best approximation that we can provide to Big l. This is because the data integrity checks and business logic bound to the objects are always shared, and therefore, never circumvented. The SAP example is not unique. Most of the major software vendors have a similar tragedy.For example, Figure 11 shows the Oracle strategy for application server integration. The key component of Figure 11 for our discussion is in the right-center of the figure. The Oracle Application Server manages the shared objects and during runtime â€Å"Top Link manages persistence between Java objects and database tables. † At the conceptual level the integration ap proaches pursued by Oracle and SAP are similar. The widely accepted disadvantage of using this application server integration is that significant changes may have to be made to all source and target applications to